of time lines and duration: the language and philosophy of time

TENSE VS ASPECT:

The English language (but not only the English language) does not really have a 'tense system' for its verbs: rather, it's all about aspect, whether the continuous/progressive aspect or the perfect aspect:

Each verb tense represents a different subjective view of time, and all of the different uses of a particular verb tense can be connected back to this same view. For example, the present perfect can be used in a number of different situations, but all the usages have a unifying characteristic - each use indicates that the speaker is looking back at a past event from the perspective of the present.

Jay Doubleyou: grammar workshop

There are two tenses in English, the ‘present’ and ‘past’ tense; these are the only verbs forms that do not require an auxiliary. We add further meaning and viewpoints to these basic forms through the use of aspect. Aspect allows the speaker to interpret the events being described and express how they view them.

Tense vs aspect – Collins

With much more here:

Grammatical aspect - Wikipedia

And here we get into very complex territory:

Tense and Aspect (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

...

TIMELINES AND TABLES:

To what extent, then, can we rely on what the grammar books show us?

The following are the norm - but are really not helpful as they do not reflect how the English language is used - or, indeed, how humans perceive the flow of time (see below):

All the English tenses, timeline

Verb Tense Timelines - Learn English Grammar

The problem with these schemes is that they don't represent the way the English language represents time.

English is not Latin - or a Latin language - with its very fixed table of tenses:

How English became English – and not Latin | OUPblog

There is no future tense in English:

Why doesn't English have an inflected future tense? When did such a tense last appear in the history of the English language, or if it never existed during the process from the PIE to English, where did it come to Latin from? - Cult of Linguists - Quora

But, then, philosophically, we can say that the future is not a reality - and is only something seen from the present. Again, a question of aspect:

Jorge Luis Borges Quote: “The future has no other reality than as present hope, and the past is no more than present memory.”

For example, the 'going to' form is not a 'future form' any more that 'want/hope/plan' to are. The 'going to' form is an exact mirror image of the present perfect - looking forwards from now, rather than looking backwards from now:

Joel Swagman (Reviews / TESOL): The English Verb by Michael Lewis

"What's wrong with grammar teaching ?" - Persée

...

THE PHILOSOPHY OF TIME:

A lot of this confusion has to do with how we perceive 'time' - and there are many different ways to do that:

Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe – a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.[46][47]

The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container" that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[17] and Immanuel Kant,[48][4^9] holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.

Time - Wikipedia

Arrow of time - Wikipedia

Eternalism (philosophy of time) - Wikipedia

Philosophical presentism - Wikipedia

Philosophy of space and time - Wikipedia

And we can get really quite deep into all of this:

Time (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Experience and Perception of Time (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

...

DURATION

This is an understanding of time which 'goes against' the science of Newton (and Einstein) but which seems to accord with how humans (and other creatures?) see time: again, it's a question of aspect:

Duration (French: la durée) is a theory of time and consciousness posited by the French philosopher Henri Bergson. Bergson became aware that the moment one attempted to measure a moment, it would be gone: one measures an immobile, complete line, whereas time is mobile and incomplete. For the individual, time may speed up or slow down, whereas, for science, it would remain the same.

Duration (philosophy) - Wikipedia

Our temporal experience of the world is not divided into a series of neat segments, yet that's how we talk about time.

Why philosopher Henri Bergson rejected the word "time" - Big Think

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859-1941) and his ideas about human experience of time passing and how that differs from a scientific measurement of time, set out in his thesis on 'Time and Free Will' in 1889. He became famous in France and abroad for decades, rivalled only by Einstein and, in the years after the Dreyfus Affair, was the first ever Jewish member of the Académie Française. It's thought his work influenced Proust and Woolf, and the Cubists. He died in 1941 from a cold which, reputedly, he caught while queuing to register as a Jew, refusing the Vichy government's offer of exemption.

In Our Time - Bergson and Time - BBC Sounds

We don’t really experience life as a succession of separate conscious states, progressing along an imaginary line. Instead, we feel time as a continuous flow, with no clearly demarcated beginnings and ends. We should not therefore confuse an abstract, arbitrary notion of practical convenience with the underlying truth that is continuously confirmed by our own experience.

Henri Bergson and the Perception of Time | Issue 48 | Philosophy Now

.

.

.

what is a synonym?

The songwriter Burt Bacharach gave us a good definition of a synonym:

"A synonym is a word you use when you can't spell the word you first thought of."

Burt Bacharach - A synonym is a word you use when you...

Here are a couple of other definitions:

one of two or more words or expressions of the same language that have the same or nearly the same meaning in some or all senses

Synonym Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster

A synonym is a word that has the same meaning as another word (or nearly the same meaning). For example, beautiful and attractive are synonyms of each other because they both refer to someone or something that looks good.

Synonym: Definition and Examples | Grammarly

The problem is 'nearly'...

The Grammarly definition points to why it's a good thing to have synonyms in the sense that we need a better choice of words and we need to avoid using the same old vocabulary again and again (and again).

It then looks at the different types of synonym, starting with:

Absolute synonyms:

Grammarly says:

Absolute synonyms are words that mean exactly the same thing; there is no difference in meaning. You can use absolute synonyms interchangeably; one synonym can replace another without changing the message.

Examples: identical — indistinguishable... drink — beverage... insect — bug

The problem is that all of these examples have very different registers (ie, formality/informality)

Jay Doubleyou: register

Jay Doubleyou: high culture > popular culture --- high register > low register

So says this from a discussion forum:

The basic reason why absolute synonyms (or absolute anything, really) don't exist in natural languages is because whenever two forms have no differences whatsoever in register, meaning, or emotional value, someone is bound to exploit the unused form distinction so as to give it a register, meaning, and emotional value of their choice, and some of these choices will stick, producing non-absolute synonymy, or absolute non-synonymy -- though often only in certain speech communities.

english - Do absolute synonyms exist? - Linguistics Stack Exchange

There is no such thing as a synonym!

It's very handy to be able to use a thesaurus - or list of words with a similar meaning.

But:

It is only a fiction if one holds fast to the notion that synonyms must be exactly equivalent in their meaning, usage, and connotation. Of course, under this strict view, there will never be any “perfect” synonyms. No word does exactly the job of another...

Word for Word | Lapham’s Quarterly

You have to rely on more than just a list, though:

A thesaurus is a handy catalog of synonyms full of exciting (astonishing, flashy, lively!) words we can use in our writing. While it’s tempting to grab an electrifying word and go when we look for a synonym, this practice presents some pitfalls.
Every word in the English language has its own particular place, and it’s even possible to claim that there is no such thing as a true synonym.
Search for the word house in Thesaurus.com, and the options include not only home (which we all know has a cozier connotation than house) but also apartment, condo, mansion, and shack. Kennel and pigpen are there too. (Think of the trouble you’d get into if you chose one of these without knowing its definition … yikes!)
To select the best alternative to house, you have to rely on more than just this single listing in the thesaurus.

Is There Such A Thing As A True Synonym? - Dictionary.com

Finally, here's a good discussion from a Cambridge Dictionary forum:

There is no such thing as a true synonym in English. Discuss! - About Words - Cambridge Dictionary blog

.

.

.

controlling ai - part one: the dangers of chatgpt

To what extent is our 'digital space' controlled either by big corporations (as in Big Tech and Silicon Valley) or by big government (as in China/Russia/Turkey/Saudi Arabia)?

We debate the need for a European public space as an important element of democracy and announce a new initiative: The Council for European Public Space.

Peter Pomerantsev: How We Connect in the Public Digital Space - YouTube

This is from the 'council for European public space':

Council for European Public Space – European Cultural Foundation

The Council for European Public Space presents new perspectives for a European public sphere: A European Perspective (EBU) and Displ.eu – – International Journalism Festival

One of the speakers is Matthias Pfeffer - Founding Director of The Council for European Public Space. He has an impressive record:

Together with Paul Nemitz, he published Prinzip Mensch, Macht Freiheit und Demokratie im Zeitalter der Künstlichen Intelligenz (The Human Imperative, Power, Freedom and Democracy in the Age of AI). The book was nominated on the shortlist of The Political Book of the Year 2020 in Germany. 

His new book Human Thinking and Artificial Intelligence, A call for Thinking was published in October 2021. He wrote Determining our Technological and Democratic Future. A Wish List, in: Regulating Big Tech: Policy Responses to Digital Dominance, Martin Moore and Damian Tambini, Oxford University Press, 2022(together with Paul Nemitz), and The Power of Algorithms and the Structural Change of the Digital Public Sphere, in: Quadflieg, Neuburg: (Dis)Obedience in Digital Societies on the Power of Algorithms and Data, 2021. 

Pfeffer was Visiting Professor at the University of Bergamo in May 2022 in the Departement Letters, Philosophy, Communication on the topic Epistemology of Artificial Intelligence and lecturer at the Technische Universität München in Summer 2023 on "Digitalization and Democracy."

Matthias Pfeffer | 'Università degli Studi di Bergamo (University of Bergamo) - Academia.edu

As his colleague says, one of the biggest challenges for democracy is 'controlling technological power':

Will artificial intelligence replace journalists? Does it endanger democracy? How can AI be regulated without curbing the innovations it might bring for the good of all? We talk to Paul Nemitz, senior advisor to the European Commission's Directorate-General for Justice and professor of law at the College of Europe.

Paul is considered one of Europe's most respected experts on digital freedom. He led the work on the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and is the author, with Matthias Pfeffer, of "The Human Imperative – Power, Democracy and Freedom in the Age of Artificial Intelligence", an essay on the impact of new technologies on individual liberties and society.

Live | AI, media and democracy: how to square the circle? – VoxEurop

Paul Nemitz: ‘We cannot leave AI to self-regulation and ethics alone’ - VoxEurop

Matthias Pfeffer talks about the struggle between the state and corporations - and gives the example of how chatbots are 'hacking the language' - because what you get out of Chat GPT prompts have no sources or links. "These machines are not transparent" in how they work; "these technologies are very helpful for autocrats\" because it's about the volume and not quality of content:

Peter Pomerantsev: How We Connect in the Public Digital Space - YouTube

As his colleague Francesca Bria on the panel says, the founder of the company behind Chat GPT calls it Open AI - but it's hardly 'open':

The inside story of ChatGPT: How OpenAI founder Sam Altman built the world’s hottest technology with billions from Microsoft | Fortune

Sam Altman was booted as boss of ChatGPT maker OpenAI over fears he was ignoring DANGERS of artificial intelligence that experts have warned could trigger an apocalypse | Daily Mail Online

And the IT insiders have been saying that for some time now:

ChatGPT: Dangerous lack of transparency and informed consent - Community - OpenAI Developer Forum

ChatGPT's Work Lacks Transparency and That Is a Problem | RAND

After the chatbot became public, many have been wondering whether Chat GPT is open-source. Unfortunately, Chat GPT isn't. The language model, GPT-3.5, that the AI bot was built upon is also not open source. In other words, you cannot access or modify the model's source code.

Is ChatGPT open source? - PC Guide

Trying to control AI will be difficult - but we need to be aware of the dangers of Chat GPT:

Exploring the risks and alternatives of ChatGPT: Paving a path to trustworthy AI

Instead, as Francesca Bria says:

The European Union is in the middle of crucial negotiations over the Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act, whose outcome will signal whether the Act sets a new global standard for progressive AI regulation, with stringent rules on high-risk AI applications, mandatory transparency, and the protection of fundamental rights. Alternatively, there is a risk that the Act may yield to pressures from large AI corporations, reducing it to a mere voluntary code of conduct, which could exacerbate existing power disparities and the adverse effects of AI.

Towards Sovereign AI: Europe´s greatest challenge? – Euractiv

"In Berlin at the urban AI for low carbon cities event I spoke about the need for EU cities to mandate urban data sharing in public interest and enable democratic control of AI for citizen participation and collective climate action."

.

.

.

...

chat gpt in teaching/learning/working with english - the research

More and more of us are using AI to write in English:

Jay Doubleyou: chat gpt in teaching/learning/working with english

There is also more and more research happening into how we are doing it - and what it is doing to us:

Chat GPT: We need to talk

Since its public release at the end of 2022, ChatGPT – the artificial intelligence chatbot developed by OpenAI – has experienced rapid growth and widespread adoption. Its role in education, however, remains a topic of contention. While some view it as a tool to enhance learning and reduce teacher workload, others see it as a threat to integrity which opens the door to cheating and plagiarism.

In this Q&A, two researchers from the Faculty of Education offer a more nuanced perspective on the opportunities, challenges and possibilities of ChatGPT. Dr Vaughan Connolly is a teacher and researcher with interests in the role of technology in education and teacher workload. Dr Steve Watson is co-convener of the Faculty’s Knowledge, Power and Politics research cluster, and has used social systems theory to explore the meaning and communication of ChatGPT.

Chat GPT. We need to talk.

Chat GPT and education
There are several ways in which the GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) language model can be
used in education (2):
Language learning. GPT can be used to create chatbots and virtual language tutors that help students practice their language skills. These chatbots can simulate real-life conversations and provide students with instant feedback on their grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary.
Writing assistance. GPT can be used to help students improve their writing skills. By analyzing a student's writing style, GPT can suggest improvements and provide feedback on grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors.
Automated grading. GPT can be used to grade essays and other written assignments automatically. This can save teachers a lot of time and provide students with immediate feedback on their work.
Personalized learning. GPT can be used to create personalized learning experiences for students. By analyzing a student's learning patterns and preferences, GPT can recommend specific learning resources, such as articles, videos, and textbooks, that are tailored to their needs.
GPT has the potential to revolutionize education by providing students with personalized learning
experiences, improving their language and writing skills, and automating time-consuming tasks for teachers.
However, it's important to note that GPT should be used as a tool to support learning, not as a replacement for human teachers.

(PDF) Chat GPT and education

Teachers worldwide are using AI

A survey of over 300 teachers from around the world has asked how AI impacts their lives. So, what do our colleagues have to say?

A study from the University of Cambridge and the University of Bedfordshire asked 386 teachers from 70 countries about their experiences with AI. Lead researchers Dr Evelina Galaczi and Dr Nahal Khabbazbashi surveyed teachers on subjects such as:How teachers use AI in everyday teaching

Their attitudes towards AI

The challenges and benefits
What training they may need

In their report, Dr Galaczi and Dr Khabbazbashi found teachers were, on the whole, positive towards and comfortable with AI. Educators told researchers that AI had become a teaching aid for them, with one teacher from Kenya expressing it ‘is currently my best teaching tool’.

Teachers worldwide are using AI - E L Gazette

.

.

.

how to attract and keep your english language teachers

Language schools really struggled during the pandemic - and have taken time to build themselves up again:

Jay Doubleyou: "this has been a dire, dire situation for the industry since the pandemic started"

It has not been made easier by there not being enough teachers:

Jay Doubleyou: "the shortage of teachers is matched only by the surge in student numbers"

The latest E L Gazette looks at how more teachers could be attracted to the industry - and how they could be kept for longer:

In a world where EFL teachers are in short supply across the Anglosphere, a language school in Bournemouth, UK, has come up with what is, in this industry, an unusual solution: combine a teaching role with other work and offer them a permanent, salaried, year-round position at more than they can earn stacking shelves at a supermarket for the national average working week of 37.5 hours.

How one English school succeeds in recruiting and retaining staff - E L Gazette

Supportive schools make teachers happier and more effective. School climate is a stronger predictor of teachers’ enjoyment than self-efficacy or wellbeing, according to a recent study... But the biggest predictor overall was perceived school climate, suggesting that a co-operative and supportive working environment is the best way to promote teaching competence, wellbeing and enjoyment.

EFL teachers’ enjoyment - E L Gazette

.

.

.

how to counter propaganda/paranoia/conspiracy theories... 1: enjoy culture and the arts

Peter Pomerantsev, Professor at the Institute of Global Affairs at the London School of Economics, says the best way to challenge and counter the stream of lies and hate online is to read and listen to and watch any writing/books and movies/culture which is about humanity, openness and making choices:

Russian propaganda. How does it work and how can it be combated? - YouTube

For young people he would recommend Tolkien and Harry Potter.

Harry Potter is a humanist and thus J.K Rowling is one too | by Jessica Cote | Diary Of Fantastic Discoveries | Medium

Tolkien’s optimism about human nature: A lesson for our society today - World Youth Alliance

For adults there are always Ukrainian writers:

Serhiy Zhadan - Wikipedia

And his book of stories:

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia | Serhiy Zhadan | London Review Bookshop

Also:

Vasyl Stus - Wikipedia

Thriving in Isolation and Beyond: The Empowering Poetry of Vasyl Stus | Los Angeles Review of Books

Here are a couple of TED Talks:

Lisa Bu: How books can open your mind | TED Talk

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: The danger of a single story | TED Talk

Books are dangerous, are revolutionary:

The Power of Literature: How it Shapes Society and Culture | by Arda Π| ILLUMINATION | Medium

7 Books That Will Change How You See the World

Does reading fiction make us better people? - BBC Future

Umberto Eco had something to say about this:

Umberto Eco: 'People are tired of simple things. They want to be challenged' | Umberto Eco | The Guardian

Umberto Eco Taught the World How to Think About Conspiracies and Fascism

Conspiracy Theories and Literary Ethics: Umberto Eco, Danilo Kiš and The Protocols of Zion on JSTOR

Real literature is always about losers
... going on to ask Eco why he chose to tell the story from the point of view of a thwarted character.
“Because that’s literature,” said Eco. “Dostoevsky was writing about losers. The main character of The Iliad, Hector, is a loser. It’s very boring to talk about winners. The real literature always talks about losers. Madame Bovary is a loser. Julien Sorel is a loser. I am doing only the same job. Losers are more fascinating.
“Winners are stupid … because usually they win by chance.”

Umberto Eco: ‘Real literature is about losers’ | Umberto Eco | The Guardian

With more for later...

Facing disinformation: Five methods to counter conspiracy theories amid the Covid-19 pandemic

.

.

.

how are student numbers doing for the elt industry?

The EL Gazette looks at travel trends for English language learners, post-COVID

Uneven recovery across destinations in 2023 continues as the ELT Travel sector emerges from the pandemic crisis, shaped by new trends.

Looking back at the now seemingly distant past, 2022 brought mixed recovery. The return to English language student mobility was built around three main challenges: capacity issues, such as teachers, accommodation, flights, as well as visa application workload; ongoing restrictions in key markets; and increased costs.

On the move - E L Gazette

Things are better in the UK, but still not as good as earlier:

UK ELT: Student numbers and weeks up in 2022 but still below pre-pandemic levels

The situation looks a little better Down Under:

Partial recovery for Australia's ELT sector last year, 2023 looking strong - StudyTravel Network

In the meantime, Malta is doing very well:

Record student weeks for Malta's ELT sector in 2022 - StudyTravel Network

This of course is connected to Brexit - although the UK might be having more French schoolchildren:

UK's ban on French EU ID cards officially lifted by Home Office

UK confirms France group travel concessions, industry calls for expansion - StudyTravel Network

Finally, there is the largest sector to consider:

Chinese students: border opening releasing study abroad demand

.

.

.

the teacherpreneur

Here's a question - and an interview:

How can a teacher stretch their limits outside the traditional teaching box?

As more and more people turn away from traditional work to the so-called “gig economy,” Brad Carty – author, educator, and “teacherpreneur” – tells us all about his books, his work, and his journey through turning skills and knowledge from mere gigs to successful business endeavours.

The rise of the teacherpreneur - E L Gazette

Here's more from EducationOnline at Kansas University:

What is a Teacherpreneur?

There is a new brand of teacher that is bridging the gap between the traditional classroom teacher, the administrator and the educational policy maker: the teacherpreneur. In the past, most schools have relied on a hierarchy that separates the people who create schools’ educational policies (administrators) from the people who actually deliver the education (teachers).

In the most tangible sense, that hierarchy separates the two physically, with teachers in the classroom and administrators in an office. However, it also separates them by purpose, with administrators envisioning educational policies and teachers implementing them directly. The teacherpreneur changes this history of compartmentalization by stepping outside the classroom to affect multiple realms of education. A teacherpreneur becomes involved in educational leadership, writes their own curricula, researches educational philosophies, educates other teachers and even works to reform official educational policies.

Multi-Tasking: Exploring Other Careers without Leaving the Classroom

Most teachers enjoy working with students, but in the past, those who have had dreams of making a greater impact on the educational frontier at large were required to leave their positions to pursue career opportunities in administration or the private sector. That is no longer the case, and these teacherpreneurs who choose to pursue teaching and policy making at once can take on this hybrid role by working simultaneously both inside and outside of the classroom. Teacherpreneurs have the ability to work in the classroom part time, while their schools and improving educational policy in the remainder of their time. The Center for Teaching Quality illustrates successful examples of this approach through numerous case studies and offers additional resources innovation in your classroom and beyond.

What is a Teacherpreneur?

With lots more here:

Teacherpreneur: 5 Excellent Career Moves for Teachers!

Educational Consultant Jobs: Transitioning Out of the Classroom

The secrets to becoming a teacherpreneur....all of them do this! - YouTube

TeacherPreneur - YouTube

.

.

.

nests and nnests - native and non-native english-speaking teachers

From Wikipedia:

NNEST (/ɛnˈnɛst/ en-NEST) or non-native English-speaking teachers is an acronym that refers to the growing body of English language teachers who speak English as a foreign or second language. The term was coined to highlight the dichotomy between native English-speaking teachers (NEST) and non-native English-speaking teachers (NNEST).

NNEST - Wikipedia

This throws up all sorts of questions and issues:

Jay Doubleyou: what sort of english do you want to learn?

Jay Doubleyou: is clil working? is the bilingual class effective? are students learning through english?

Jay Doubleyou: linguicism

Jay Doubleyou: what is a native speaker teacher of english?

Jay Doubleyou: what is a 'native speaker' of english? the issue of race...

And these questions and issues have been explosive in South-East Asia:

The complex interplay of “nativeness,” whiteness, nationality, and unequal pay creates pervasive challenges for qualified Vietnamese English Teachers (Vets), non-native English-speaking teachers (Nnests), and teachers of colour. Drawing on anecdotal experiences from teaching in Vietnam’s private sector – prior to embarking on my MEd TESOL – I want to shine a light on discriminatory practices, and the impact they have on the employment landscape.

Inequality and discrimination in Vietnam’s private sector - E L Gazette

Here's a piece looking at the issues

Regardless, NESTs aren’t necessarily the best and NNESTs aren’t necessarily less fluent. Both these types of teachers bring their distinct strengths and weaknesses to the classroom.

Native and Non-Native English Speakers: Who's the Better English Teacher? | tutoroo.co

And this is from the British Council's Teaching English website:

The short answer to this month’s blog topic, “is it really worth making the distinction between ‘native English speakers’ (NES) and ‘non-native English speakers’ (NNES)”, is no; the issue, however, is much more complex than a simple one-word response.

Is the ‘native speaker/ non-native speaker’ teacher dichotomy really necessary anymore? | TeachingEnglish | British Council

.

.

.

is the english language taking over?

Last year, the British Councill looked at the future of the English language - and asked:

Will English remain the world’s most sought-after language?

For the foreseeable future English will remain the dominant global lingua franca (a language used by people with different native languages to communicate with each other), but the role it plays in the lives of individuals or in policies will begin to change.

Numbers of learners will remain stable or rise in the next ten years. The main drivers for this are education, employment, technology and global mobility. Employers, parents and learners themselves are driving the need for English language education. They see it as a necessity for success in life, learning and employment.

In our rapidly changing world what is the future of the English language? | British Council

Five years ago, the writer Jacob Mikanowski wrote about the dominance of the English language - which was later put into a podcast:

No language in history has dominated the world quite like English does today. Is there any point in resisting?

From the archive: Behemoth, bully, thief: how the English language is taking over the planet – podcast | News | The Guardian

This is from the original full piece:

Behemoth, bully, loudmouth, thief: English is everywhere, and everywhere, English dominates. From inauspicious beginnings on the edge of a minor European archipelago, it has grown to vast size and astonishing influence. Almost 400m people speak it as their first language; a billion more know it as a secondary tongue. It is an official language in at least 59 countries, the unofficial lingua franca of dozens more. No language in history has been used by so many people or spanned a greater portion of the globe. It is aspirational: the golden ticket to the worlds of education and international commerce, a parent’s dream and a student’s misery, winnower of the haves from the have-nots. It is inescapable: the language of global business, the internet, science, diplomacy, stellar navigation, avian pathology. And everywhere it goes, it leaves behind a trail of dead: dialects crushed, languages forgotten, literatures mangled.

Behemoth, bully, thief: how the English language is taking over the planet | Language | The Guardian

.

.

.